5.2 Knowledge, Discovery, and Revelation: The Qur’anic Roots of Medieval Islamic Scholarship
The most profound foundation of the Islamic Medieval legacy was the presence of its distinguished scholars and the true luminaries of the Golden Age. Through their radiant discoveries and intellectual contributions, they enriched not only the Islamic world but also the broader human civilization. These scholars explored and articulated the fundamental theories of nearly every discipline, shaping ideas that continue to influence the modern world. What set them apart was their constant effort to align every scientific revelation with the wisdom of the Qur’an, affirming that each marvel of creation is but a manifestation of the blessings of Allah, the Exalted. Unlike Western thought, which separated religion from the other sides of the universal life, Islam emphasized the model of tawḥīdik science so that universal balance and harmony can be holistically managed and shaped. The Islamic scholars in this period always tried and succeeded in it. There are several identities that contributed to the Islamic science and affirmed their belief, confirming the scientificity of the Qur’an. They looked at the values taught in the Qur’an from the scientific point of view, which are divinity, society, and nature. These names include Jabir Ibn Hayyan and Al Razi through their contributions in chemistry, Ibn Sina in medicine, Al Kindi in physics, Al Biruni in various fields of science, and Ibn Haytham in optics. This proves that Islamic scholars pioneered these sciences, while Western scholars emerged later in history. Among the Western scholars, Isaac Newton was in the same field as Ibn Haytham, Copernicus, and Galileo Galilei; Al Battani and Al Biruni were in the same field; and later Francis Bacon was in the same field as Ibn Sina and Al Haytham in the scientific methods. The chronology of time also proved the superiority of Islamic science, which is the basis for the development of scientific sciences in human civilization. Moreover, there were also many other names that glistened in the fields of philosophy, theology, and astronomy. They were Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, and Al-Farabi for their valuable contributions in Islamic philosophy; Ibn Bajjah Al Andalusi, Al Qazwini, and Ibn Firnas in astronomy; and Ibn Khaldun, breaking the barriers in sociology and history. These luminaries were the powers of the medieval Islamic world, or surely of Islamic history, who invented new theories that bridged with Qur’anic insights. The succeeding part of this paper sheds light on some of these scholars and their remarkable achievements.
Firstly, Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in Europe, was a Persian scholar who synthesized Qur’anic theology and Aristotelian logic. He was known for his work Kitab-al-Shifa, The Book of Healing, in which he explains logic, politics, and human psychology. In his famous book, Al-Ishārat-wal-Tanbīhāt, he argues in the theological aspect that everything contingent requires a cause. The chain of causes ends in one necessary existence, which the Arabs referred to as Wājib-Al-Wujūd. Then, he aligns this with the Qur’anic verse:
﴾اللَّهُ خَالِقُ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ ۖ وَهُوَ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ وَكِيلٌ﴿
"Allah is the Creator of all things, and He is, over all things, Disposer of affairs." Thus, his metaphysics was Qur’an-inspired rational theology, not detached philosophy.In addition, another remarkable name among the scholars was Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes in Europe. He was an Andalusian philosopher that stated the reason as a Qur’anic obligation. He argues that philosophy is not foreign to Islam; instead, it is mandated by the Qur’an. He maintained that the study of philosophy is a Qur’anic command because the Qur’an urges reflection on creation. This, he wrote in his book Faṣl-Al-Maqāl: Since the Shariah calls upon us to reflect on beings, and reflection is nothing but the act of reasoning, then it is an obligation to study philosophy. This was his concept of philosophy. For him, philosophy was a rational Tafsīr of divine revelation, not opposition to it. Next up, Ibn Khaldun, another towering figure, was known as the founder of sociology and historical epistemology through his seminal work Al-Muqaddimah. He introduced concepts of cohesion, which was named 'Aṣabiyyah, and the cyclical nature of civilization. In 'Aṣabiyyah, he explains the importance of social unity, drawing upon his deep research in the Qur’an's verses in Surah-Al-Hujurath: "The believers are but brothers, so reckon between your brothers, and fear Allah, so that you may receive mercy." This verse can be termed as social capital, which appeared in the phrase "Ikhwah." So, these inspiring stories show us that the scholars always depended on the Qur’an for their discoveries. The Muslims were also deeply interested in anthropological and historical studies, as famous historians like Ibn Battuta, Ibn Hawqal, and Yaqut Al Hamavi formulated that their practice of geography by knowing and describing God's work is a religious duty.
Moreover, Imam Ghazali's philosophical statements emphasized spiritual purification and knowledge of God through both intellect and inner experience. His theory was that denying the science for preventing the Qur’an is not the right way. So, he always made efforts to discover theories connected with the Qur’an. Shoaib Ahmed Malik has clearly justified Al-Ghazali's words in his book "Islam and Evolution". Furthermore, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, the father of chemistry, has advanced numerous theories related to liquid and water forms, like sublimation, distillation, and fertilization. Also, he had synthesized new acids like hydrochloric, sulfuric, and nitric acids, which were related mostly to water. Prominent Islamic Studies says that most of Jabir's contributions were related to water, which were discovered from the Qur’anic light of knowledge, from the Qur’an's verses that talk about liquids and their transformation. But there is no correct evidence clearing this statement; rather, the modern writers assert that he worked within an Islamic framework and harmonized with the Qur’an, and the correct verse-by-verse connection is not well defined everywhere. Thus, most of the Islamic research was made by the Qur’anic enlightenment and was revealed by the Qur’anic epistemology. Certainly, hundreds of names are again included in this list, who worked on reason as their main source of knowledge. Likewise, the Qur’an inspired a great knowledge construction in the Medieval period and built an intellectual legacy that empowered the Islamic environment for years, which still exists now and develops day by day.
5.3.1 Examples of Tafsīr-Inspired Knowledge and Discoveries
As we said, the rise of Tafsīr became so popular and helpful in the golden age of Islam, but in the history of Islam. The ancient and modern scholars depended on it for new innovations and discoveries, which makes the Holy Qur’an unique. Tafsīrs in different aspects and meanings facilitated the construction of new knowledge. The exegetes found out multiple wonders hidden in the Qur’an until they reasoned and revealed the secrets with the complete help of Allah, the all-knowing. A concise overview of some examples of Tafsīr-inspired knowledge and discoveries by the medieval scholars is below.
To begin with, a cosmic and scientific reflection emerged among the early Muslim scholars. Mainly, Imam Fakhr al-Din al-Razi has developed the cosmological interpretations. One of them is his explanation in the verse:
﴾اللَّهُ الَّذِي خَلَقَ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ وَمِنَ الْأَرْضِ مِثْلَهُنَّ﴿
"It is Allah who has created seven heavens and the earth like them." He theorized that the "seven heavens" could refer to multiple layers of the universe, anticipating the idea of cosmic spheres or worlds. He always discussed physics using Qur’anic descriptions, linking Aristotelian and Ptolemaic cosmology. He advances this statement in his book, Mafātiḥ-Al-Ghayb. Secondly, one of the clear and deep statements of the Holy Qur’an is Allah's words in chapter 23, where he says:
﴾ثُمَّ خَلَقْنَا النُّطْفَةَ عَلَقَةً فَخَلَقْنَا الْعَلَقَةَ مُضْغَةً فَخَلَقْنَا الْمُضْغَةَ عِظَامًا فَكَسَوْنَا الْعِظَامَ لَحْمًا ثُمَّ أَنْشَأْنَاهُ خَلْقًا آخَرَ﴿
"Then We made the sperm drop into a clinging clot, then We made the clot into a lump of flesh, then We made the lump into bones, and We clothed the bones with flesh; then We developed him into another creation." Innovations of Imam Al-Zamakhshari and Al-Razi in this verse analyze it linguistically and biologically. Al-Razi compared this with the Greek medical theories, identifying the stages of human development in the womb exactly where the Qur’an states the terms "nuṭfah" for sperm, "'alaqah" depicting the clot, and "muḍgah" for flesh, as a scientific miracle reflecting the divine order. This became a foundation for later Islamic embryology and influenced medieval Muslim medicine. The modern Islamic science scholars have developed the terms into "zygote," "embryo," and "fetus," which are modern scientific terms. Moreover, another revealed theory from the Qur’anic exegesis was in the verse:
﴾اللَّهُ الَّذِي يُرْسِلُ الرِّيَاحَ فَتُثِيرُ سَحَابًا فَيَبْسُطُهُ فِي السَّمَاءِ كَيْفَ يَشَاءُ وَيَجْعَلُهُ كِسَفًا﴿
"It is Allah Who sends the winds, and they raise the clouds; then He spreads them in the sky as He wills and makes them into fragments." until you see raindrops come forth from their midst!" Imam Qurtubi explained this as a complete hydrological cycle, which states the evaporation, condensation, and rainfall process long before modern meteorology. He noted that this verse reveals Allah's control of physical laws and that "the winds serve as agents between
water and earth." His Tafsīr inspired the later Muslim geographers and environmentalists. Lastly, an example of natural science is found in Surah Al-Waqiah, verses 75 and 76: "Then I swear by the setting of stars, and indeed, it is an oath—if you could know—great." The scientific focus of the verse is the oath of Allah, the exalted, on the cycle of the stars. The central word in unraveling natural science in the verse is ﴾النُّجُومِ﴿, which was interpreted by the earlier and contemporary exegetes. Qatadah and Ibn Abī Rabāḥ stated that ﴾مَوَاقِعِ النُّجُومِ﴿ is the place of the passage of the stars. Ibn Kathir referred to it as a path of stars that becomes a place of rising and shining. Al Maraghi explained it as the place where stars fall and set in the sky. In total, we can exactly observe the wonders of the Holy Qur’an by its great exegesis. Development of I'jāz al Qur'an, which means the Qur’an's miracles, was rapid in the Medieval era, and it was strengthened by the arrival of each and every Tafsīr to the world. Beyond all these, we can see many examples of Qur’an- and Tafsīr-inspired knowledge construction that took place in the Medieval period, which came to be the main turning point of the Islamic intellectual legacy.
Conclusion
It is an essential need for Islamic civilization to emphasize the concept of the Qur’anic Epistemology and its knowledge acquisition in the Islamic Classical age. The Muslim scholars truly understood the Qur’anic Epistemology concepts and foundations and worked on the revelation and reason, strengthening the intellectual legacy of Islam by the outstanding innovations of the scholars throughout the years. Decades before the Western scholars, the Islamic scholars had built the base of every field, including science, philosophy, mathematics, logic and theology. The Qur’anic interpretations rose up and created a perfect harmony in the Qur’anic education, unveiling different explanations and theories from different scholars. In essence, as we reflect upon these insights, the Medieval period stands as far more than a mere Golden Age for Islam and Muslims. It was an era that shaped the very foundations of knowledge and intellectual pursuit. The modern world must draw lessons from those remarkable scholars and strive to reclaim that enduring legacy within the realms of technology and artificial intelligence. In our time, it has become essential to engage more deeply with the Qur’an, exploring its light of wisdom and knowledge. Through such reflection and study, may new discoveries emerge from within us, reviving the true spirit of learning and restoring the legacy for a brighter tomorrow.
